The World Bank/WBI’s CBNRM Initiative

Case Received: February 2, 1999

Author: Raphael Burra

Email: snvtanzania@twiga.com

Much has been said and written on community based natural resource management, and especially so in the world of development cooperation. In real life, and especially so in the rural communities of our country, resource management has traditionally been the centre of attention, and will most likely remain so for many years to come. This paper is an account of community involvement and ownership role in sustaining Tanzania's traditional irrigation sector, which solely relies on land, soil and water resources.

The Traditional Irrigation Improvement programme is a project that commenced in Tanzania in mid 1988, following the conclusions of an inventory study on traditional irrigation in the country. The study, initiated through the Tanzania National Freedom from Hunger campaign (TFNNFC) in the period 1986/1987, was based, partly, on the curiosity to know the history, nature and survival of traditional irrigation in Tanzania, especially after the disappointing results of more than 50 years of government involvement in irrigation.

Apart from pointing out Tanzania's ancient irrigation tradition, an important conclusion of the inventory study was the obviously endangered state of traditional irrigation systems in the country, a result of over exploitation of forests and uncontrolled cultivation of steep mountain slopes. Disbanding of the traditional rules on land and water management which were effective for many generations, and replacement with the present day legislation aggravated the situation. Since the 1960s, traditional irrigation practice has been deteriorating, although it still is, the main supplier to the local markets. In some areas, production decreased from four crops per annum to two or one.

The inventory study of TIP revealed that the technological and organisational development of traditional irrigation was over the generations closely related to the physical environment. Most of the early irrigation settlements in Tanzania were found in the mountainous areas. Population pressure on the irrigated mountain slopes forced the irrigators to move into the lowland plains as well. There is evidence that most aspects of irrigation management and technology were developed in those societies - examples being intakes, aqueducts, flumes, spillways, etc. The study clearly showed the long established operation and maintenance of the traditional furrows - by clan, pond or furrow groups. Water distribution among users using the same source was well organized, even when it involved more than one group.

The inventory study of TIP excluded activities during the German colonial period (1988 - 1918). During the period of British government (1918 - 1961), the study found more interest on soil conservation, whereas traditional irrigation was seen as a threat to soil fertility. The reaction of the British colonial government was to establish irrigated settlements in the plains adjoining the over populated mountain slopes (to absorb surplus population), but was rejected by mountain dwellers.

The post independence government was more involved in the development of Modern Village Irrigation and large scale irrigation projects. It became even more so after the 1967 Arusha declaration (Nationalization), and the Villagization process in the early 1970s.

At the time of TIP's inventory study in 1986/87, government involvement in traditional irrigation was minimum, although the traditional sector still accounted for 80% of actual irrigated area in Tanzania. Focus on Medium/Village and large irrigation schemes was the role of central government (Irrigation Division) which had no capacity to reach lower levels such as the districts.

In consideration of this situation, the inventory study ended with a project proposal, which had the long term objective of "durable improvement of the standard of living of the population(women and men) in the traditional irrigation areas in Tanzania, through improvement of irrigation practice, combined with soil and water conservation.

A unique aspect of the project proposal within the Tanzanian set up at that time was that it was to be a district (local authority) based project/activity. The project idea was intimated to the Dutch Development Cooperation (DGIS) where financing of a pilot phase was obtained for the years 1988 - 1992. The second phase of the project lasted from 1992 - 1997. A third phase, has just started, the aim being to further develop as a more product oriented and service organization, raising the ownership role of the main stake holders, (WUGs and district councils).

Overall, the conceptual framework of the TIP project has stabilized around the following main elements:

• a district based cooperation/partnership
• participation and empowerment of the target group through organizational strengthening of - WUGs and integration of gender issues environmental (catchment) approach in improvement of small holder irrigation practices
• a step by step guidelines in negotiation and execution of project activities
• strategic contribution towards development of national irrigation policy

Within the above conceptual framework, a possibility was foreseen to utilize self help activities as an essential aspect of sustainable improvement of irrigated agriculture, not only in irrigation but also agroforestry and soil and water conservation. The traditional methods of working together to assist each other (eg Kiwili Groups) were successfully revived. Irrigation was regarded as the driving force behind self help (labour contribution) in irrigation communities. Deliberately, importance of low cost interventions was emphasized in the pilot phase, with the aim to minimize the donor's contribution as much as possible in favour of local contributions.

The target group of the Programme, "the population in traditional irrigation areas in Tanzania" was more specifically defined as the farmer households who are members of the traditional irrigation systems in Tanzania, communally organized around furrows and small ponds. Special category within the group was identified as female headed households and female user members who, due to gender biases, faced additional constraints and therefore deserved specific attention.

In general the TIP target group was found to be situated in a wide and complex context because:

• the irrigation farmers are dependent on community institutions beyond the immediate irrigation system boundaries.

• the irrigation systems are usually part of a larger catchment, with important linkages to upstream land use and downstream demands.

In view of this complexity, TIP strived to select partner groups within the boundaries of geographically defined (micro) catchments. As areas differed from district to district, the project criterium for selection of user groups was cohesion and impact, and where the irrigation systems were found to be fairly close to each other, enabling the positioning of the systems within an overall catchment approach. During the pilot phase (1988 - 1992), application of this criterium led the project into a strong environmental focus, allowing the win of an International Award on Environment and Development, 1991. The second phase of the project (1992 - 1997) shifted more to people-centered concerns, with development of a stepwise operational framework which aimed at capacity building of the target user groups.

Having succeeded in the previous two phases, the Programme has moved into a third part (1997 - 2000), a clear aim, as earlier mentioned, being to further develop/grow into a more product oriented service organization.

Worthwhile to mention is the fact that acceptance of the TIP project as a district based activity in the mid 1980s, was indeed greatly facilitated by the revival of Local Authorities in Tanzania (Local Authority Act 1984). This was necessary, not only in providing a legal framework for the functioning of the project, but also giving a technical criteria for setting policies on land and agricultural land use.

Local government in Tanzania has had a chequered history. District Councils were abolished in 1972, and re instated in 1984. TIP's choice to work with the district Councils, at a moment when they were only being revived ( still weak , and the choice being contested), was encouraged by not only the mandate and responsibilities given in the new Act, but also by the long standing history of the District Agricultural Staff in traditional irrigation since 1930, whereas the national irrigation department came into being only in 1952 (still leaving districts to be responsible for traditional irrigation todate).

Even more important, however, are the change processes in the institutional outlook of the TIP's target group. At the time the project started, the local society appeared to be dominated by the Village Government, the lowest level of government presence which was an outcome of the villagisation and socialization policies. TIP therefore designed its interventions on the basis of a tripartite cooperation: Village Government, District Council and TIP. Two problems were immediately encountered:

• Irrigation schemes were regarded as property of the village government and O & M was enforced, even farmers who had no access to irrigation water were forced to participate. Often, the village government allocated more irrigation plots even where water was insufficient.
• The village government (significantly influenced by the then single
political party) acted often as a block rather than a facilitator between the project and the actual irrigators, and was interested to prolong patronage and dependency relations.

Based on the above experiences (already in the first phase), TIP worked more on the concept of Water User Groups (WUGs) rather than Villages. By middle of the second phase (1995), the concept was successful. Additionally, the WUG approach gained further momentum from the 1990s government policy reforms. These are for instance the new Cooperative Act, and introduction of multiparty democracy, and also the enabling of the environment for development of the private sector. These reforms give more possibilities for WUGs to become self sustaining economic entities who can also manage their natural resources, and especially water.

The outcome of TIP interventions with regard to use and conservation of Soil and Water Resources can be viewed from different angles: i) the emerging institutional arrangements which are essential for carrying forward the past gains, and ii) the actual/ physical outcome and impact of the project activities on soil and water resources.

Starting with the latter, an apparent realization is the decline in water distribution conflicts and increased water availability in several areas. Examples can be drawn from groups like Kwa Simba Juu , Tewe/Lunguza (Lushoto district), Mgambalenga/Ikula (Iringa district), Kisangara Juu/Chini (Mwanga district), Hingilili river basin (Same district), and Nduruma (Arumeru district). The catchment concept in TIP is applied to the smallest catchment of any tributary, as long as its highest point is part of the project/Programme area. This is indeed the case for the above mentioned examples. Recent assessment lead to conclusions on measurable results such as protected and rehabilitated catchments, maximized infiltration through physical soil conservation measures and small hydraulic works and increased efficiency and intensified horticultural production.

The question, who is responsible for administering the institutional developments, is a challenge that has contributed to the determination of the future outlook of TIP : to institutionalize and capitalize on the achievements and experiences of the past, and to create effective local ownership of the project's trademarks. Procedures have been started for establishment of a TIP NGO. Important tasks of the NGO are expected to be twofold: Firstly, to replicate the projects main products in more areas of the country than only the present districts. Secondly, the TIP NGO can greatly enhance the proposed catchment level intermediary organisations, and team up with them in undertaking tasks such as to:

• lobby for subsidized settlement policy to attract mountain dwellers into the lowland

• advise the district councils on stabilizing settlement by selective assistance to land improvement, limited licensing for commercial activities, strict conditions for highland Programme assistance than lowland

• assist in identifying activities that degrade the environment and suggest measure for controlling rather than prohibiting.

Many lessons are derived from the TIP innovated package, especially on the intricate relationship between water and soil resources to the user community. This also implies the institutional and financial sustainability, which is in this respect in the hands of the communities concerned. Within the catchments. Thus, having existed for almost a decade, TIP 's concern with respect to effective and efficient use of soil and water resources could be looked at from two levels: at individual WUG level; and at Catchment level. When moving into a new phase, these have to be taken into consideration.

At individual WUG level, efforts are more to effectively utilize soil and water - irrigation water always being the critical resource. Most of the interventions have to be geared towards improving the efficiency both at farm level (LPS, terracing to enhance infiltration) and at system level (canal lining, intakes, distribution boxes)

Lessons on the catchment level have been a result of the TIPs highland/lowland relationship. The TIP experience has proved that institutional and financial sustainability depend of the economic gains on resource use. In the case of highland groups, efforts of a single WUG cannot be economically viable, unlike in the lowlands where groups and command areas are bigger. To gain achievements, establishment of catchment organizations is therefore a necessity.

Experience has further shown that it is necessary, for projects like TIP, to establish links with relevant national and international environmental control institutions, especially in those areas where project interventions could in one way or the other, alter the ecological balance - for instance where major irrigation and conservation works will affect downstream users such as pastoralists, or even wildlife in the adjoining plains.

And finally, an important lesson has been on the negative role of marketing constrains, easily able to frustrate the motivation of local communities in managing and properly using their natural resources, especially soil and water. Highland communities (where conservation should start) are often situated in areas with difficult roads. Efforts to work towards a new institutional arrangement should therefore take into consideration such aspects.

References:

1. Burra, R and Heuvel, vd K: Traditional Irrigation in Tanzania: A historical background (Vol.1, 1987).

2. Burra, R: Ideas for restructuring the future management of TIP (1995)

3. Heuvel, vd K: Two Years Traditional Iriigation Improvement Programme (1990)

4. TIP: Formulation Report, Phase III (1997)

5. TIP: TIP Position Paper: A five year business outlook (1998)